Understanding Indian Society: Social Classes in India

SOCIAL CLASSES IN INDIA

The impact of British rule in India has brought about far-reaching changes in Indian

society. The class structure in India has been interpreted by employing different theoretical

orientations by the Indian sociologists. Sociologists like A.R. Desai has utilised Marxian theory

while analysing the Indian class structure in agrarian relation. However, attributes such as income,

occupation, non-agricultural modes of earning are used to the studies on caste, class is, however,

not substantial. The reason is partly historical and importantly, it is because of the continued

overlapping between the caste and class status situations or interactions in Indian social

stratification. Often, it is difficult to draw a sharp line where caste principle of stratification ceases

and the class principle begins. Caste and class are two principles of stratification which age

persisted in the Indian social systems in a dialectical relationship.

The sociology of Indian class stratification should not only take into account the present

day processes among the various class strata but also analyse them in the historical contexts of

change. Studies which throw light on the class structure and its processes in the traditional Indian

society reveal that class structure was related to the modes of production and ownership.

Kings, feudal chiefs, traders, artisans, peasants, labourers and the social relationships of

these groups assume significance for understanding the Indian class structure.

The king occupied the highest position with so many loyalties and vassals and his subjects

owed allegiance to him and in turn the king was responsible for the welfare of his people. The

merchants, the business class were the most mobile. Here wealth and economic factors played

important roles in determining one's class position and in that context one's social position based

on caste became weakened. The establishment of various economic and political institutions by the

British enhanced the mobility of these groups of people that they could mobilise economic

surpluses from village to towns and cities.

SOCIAL CLASSES IN RURAL INDIA

T.K. Oommen lists the following five categories.

(i) Landlords, who own but do not cultivate land, either employing intermediaries or leasing out

land.

(ii) Rich farmers, who look upon agriculture as a business proposition, produce for the market and for

profit, employ wage labour, and supervise rather than cultivate.

(iii) Middle peasants, who cultivate their own land and hire labourers only for certain operations or at

certain points of time.

(iv) Poor peasants, who own small and uneconomic holdings and often have to work as parts

labourers or as sharecroppers or tenant.

(v) Landless agricultural workers who sell their labour and fully depend on the first three categories

for their livelihood.

The Indian Communist parties give a fivefold classification.

(vi) Landlords (feudal and capitalist), who do not take part in manual labour;

(vii) Rich peasants, who participate in manual work, but mainly employ wage labour;

(viii) Middle peasants, who own or lease land which is operated predominantly by their family and also

by wage labour.

(ix) Poor peasants, whose main income is derived from land leased or owned, but who employ no wage

labour.

(x) Agricultural labourers, who earn their livelihood mainly through selling their labour in agriculture

or allied occupations.

Hamsa Alavi adopted the three-fold classification of peasants under the heading of rich,

middle and poor peasants.

In rural areas, classes consist principally of (i) landlords, (ii) tenants, (iii) peasant

proprietors, (iv) agricultural labourers and (v) artisans. Now let us examine each of them one by

one.

LANDLORDS

Types of Landlords: Broadly, there were two types of landlords: (i) the zamindars/

taluqdars (old landlords) and (ii) moneylenders, merchants and others. Those who held such

ownership of tenure rights (in zamindari areas) were often referred to as intermediaries. These

intermediaries were of various categories known by different names and found in various regions

of U.P., Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Taluqdars were inferior intermediaries whom the large

zamindars created out of their own zamindari rights. Jotedars found in some parts of Bengal were

substantial landholders who held land direct from the zamindars. They got land cultivated by

subletting to the tenants on a 50: 50 share. Similarly, Pattidars held permanent leases at fixed dues

under the zamindars. Ijardars on the other hand were those to whom the revenue of an area was

hired out on a contract basis.

PEASANT PROPRIETORS

Another settlement made by the British is known by the name of Ryotwari Settlement. This

was introduced in Madras and Bombay Presidencies in the nineteenth century. Under this

settlement, ownership of land was vested in the peasants. The actual cultivators were subjected to

the payment of revenue. However, this settlement was not a permanent settlement and was revised

periodically after 20-30 years. It did not bring into existence a system of peasant ownership.

The peasant proprietors, in the past as well as in the present, hardly constitute a

homogeneous category. They may be broadly divided into three categories, namely, (i) the rich,

(ii) the middle, and (iii) the poor peasants.

(i) Rich Peasants: They are proprietors with considerable holdings. They perform no

fieldwork but supervise cultivation and take personal interest in land management and

improvement. They are emerging into a strong capitalist farmer group.

(ii) Middle Peasants: They are landowners of medium size holdings. They are generally

self-sufficient. They cultivate land with family labour.

(iii) Poor Peasants: They are landowners with holdings that are not sufficient to maintain a

family. They are forced to rent in other's land or supplement income by working as labourers. They

constitute a large segment of the agricultural population.

TENANTS

The creation of zamindari settlement transformed the owner cultivators of pre-British India

into a class of tenants. The zamindars resorted to the practice of extracting an exorbitant rent from

the tenants. Those who failed to pay were evicted from land and were replaced by those ready to

pay higher rents. Similar practice prevailed in estates, which were leased out by the zamindars.

Broadly then there were two categories of tenants in zamindari areas - tenants under zamindars and

tenants under lease (tenure) holders during the British period. Tenants under tenure holders were

thus sub-tenants. Of course, various categories of tenants under subtenants too had grown up in

Bengal. The lowest in the hierarchy were sharecroppers.

AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS

Non-cultivating landlords, peasant proprietors and tenants are not the only social groups

connected with agriculture. Along with the swelling of rent-paying tenants there was also a

progressive rise in the number of agricultural labourers. The growing indebtedness among peasant

population, followed by land alienation and displacement of village artisans was largely

responsible for this. The agricultural labourers were and still are broadly of three types. Some

owned or held a small plot of land in addition to drawing \ their livelihood from sale of their

labour. Others were landless and lived exclusively on hiring out of their labour. In return for their

labour, the agricultural labourers were paid wages, which were very low. Their condition of living

was far from satisfactory. Wages were generally paid in kind i.e. food grains like paddy, wheat and

pulses. Sometimes cash was paid in lieu of wages in kind. A certain standard measure was

employed to give these wages. In fact, payment in kind continued alongside money payments.

There was another type of labour prevailing in many parts of the country. Their status was

almost that of bondage or semi bondage. Dublas and Halis in Gujarat, Padials in Tamil Nadu are a

few examples of such bonded labour existing in India. Such labour force exists in some parts even

today. The land reform programmes after Independence have done almost nothing to improve the

condition of agricultural labourers in India. Of course, the government has proposed to settle them

on co-operative basis on surplus or newly reclaimed or wasteland. Bonded labour was legally

abolished in India in 1972 and Government, as well as, voluntary agencies are doing serious work

in order to locate the bonded labourers and rehabilitate them. There has been considerable swelling

in the number of agricultural labourers in the wake of the land reform programmes. Resumption of

land by landlords for personal cultivation and eviction of tenants from their tenure have been the

factors leading to this trend. The process was further accelerated by the Green Revolution. Large

farms, being in conformity with the Green Revolution, has opened the way for greater

concentration of land by purchase, sale or through eviction of tenants. In the process the rank of

agricultural labourers has further increased. At the same time, there is very low rate of transfer of

the agricultural labour population to industry. Hence, there is little likelihood of radical change in

the social and economic situation of the agricultural labourers in most parts of the country. The

government has, of course, taken some steps towards protecting their interest. Legislation towards

abolition of bonded labour and minimum wage structure on the one hand, and employment

generating programmes on the other, reflect this concern. Such measures are, however, far from

effective. The agricultural labourers hence constitute the weakest section of the rural society.

ARTISANS

In rural areas the class of artisans form an integral part of the village community. They

have existed since the ancient periods contributing to the general self-sufficient image of an Indian

village. Some of these are like the carpenter (Badhai), the ironsmith (Lohar), the potter (Kumhar)

and so on. Not all villages had families of these artisans but under the Jajmani system, sometimes a

family of these occupational castes served more than one, village. Some social mobility did exist in

the pre-British period but, generally, these artisan castes did not experience much change. Due to

the advent of the British in India, this relatively static existence of the artisan castes suffered a

radical change. Indian economy became subordinate to the interests of the British trade and

industry.

SOCIAL CLASSES IN URBAN INDIA

In the urban areas social classes comprise principally (i) capitalists (commercial and

industrial), (ii) corporate sector (iii) professional classes, (iv) petty traders and shopkeepers

and (v) working classes.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CLASSES

Under the British rule, production in India became production for market. As a result of

this, internal market expanded and the class of traders engaged in internal trading grew.

Simultaneously, India was also linked up with the world market. This led to the growth of a class

of merchants engaged in export import business. Thus, there came into being a commercial middle

class in the country. With the establishment of railways, the accumulation of savings on the part of

this rich commercial middle class took the form of capital to be invested in other large-scale

manufactured goods and modern industries. Like the British, who pioneered the industrial

establishment in India, the Indians, too made investment initially in plantations, cotton, jute,

mining and so on. Indian society thus included in its composition such new groups as mill owners,

mine owners, etc. Subsequently, they also diversified the sphere of their industrial activity.

Economically and socially this class turned out to be the strongest class in India.

THE CORPORATE SECTOR

Any organisation that is under government ownership and control is called as public sector

unit and any organisation, which does not belong to public sector can be taken to be a part of

private sector. The firms and organisation which are owned, controlled and managed exclusively

by private individuals and entities are included in private sector. All private sector firms can be

classified into two categories, such as individually owned and collectively owned. Collectively owned firms are further classified into (i) partnership firms (ii) joint Hindu family (iii) joint-stock

companies and (iv) co-operatives. The most important of these is the joint-stock organization,

which is otherwise popularly known as corporate sector. Joint-stock companies which do no

belong to public sector are collectively known as private corporate sector.

PROFESSIONAL CLASSES

The new economic and state systems brought about by the British rule required cadres of

educated Indians trained in modern law, technology, medicine, economics, administrative science

and other subjects. In fact, it was mainly because of the pressing need of the new commercial and

industrial enterprises and the administrative systems that the British government was forced to

introduce modern education in India. They established modern educational institutions on an

increasing scale. Schools and colleges giving legal, commercial and general education were started

to meet the needs of the state and the economy. Thus, there came into being an expanding

professional class. Such social categories were linked up with modern industry, agriculture,

commerce, finance, administration, press and other fields of social life. The professional classes

comprise modern lawyers, doctors, teachers, managers and others working in the modern

commercial and other enterprises, officials functioning in state administrative machinery,

engineers, technologists; agriculture scientists, journalists and so on.

PETTY TRADERS, SHOPKEEPERS AND UNORGANISED WORKERS

In addition to the new classes discussed above, there has also been in existence in urban

areas a class of petty traders and shopkeepers. These classes have developed with the growth of

modern cities and towns. They constitute the link between the producers of goods and

commodities and the mass of consumers. That is, they buy goods from the producers or

wholesalers and sell it among the consumers. Thus, they make their living on the profit margin of

the prices on which they buy and, sell their goods and commodities. Like all other classes, this

class also has grown in scale in post-independent India.

WORKING CLASSES

Origin of the working class could be traced back to the British rule. This was the modern

working class which was the direct result of modern industries, railways, and plantations

established in India during the British period. This class grew in proportion as plantations,

factories, mining, industry, transport, railways and other industrial sectors developed and expanded

in India. The Indian working class was formed predominantly out of the pauperized peasants and

ruined artisans. Level of living and working conditions characterized their existence. A large

proportion of them generally remained indebted because of their inability to maintain themselves

and their families.

source: http://www.universityofcalicut.info/SDE/BA_sociology_indian_society.pdf

Social Processes

Social Processes: Its elements, classification and characteristics

As a socio-cultural being man lives in society. Society is a net­work of social relationship. Social relationships have a methodical system. It is impossible for men to live in isolation. They always live in groups. Due to his gregarious nature man establishes various types of relationships around him.

Man plays many roles within the society. He also performs many and varied social activities as per his nature, needs and roles. While performing these social activities or social actions he comes into contact with others. This contact or relation­ships with other changes the action of the individual into interaction. The behavior of each individual is affected by the behavior of oth­ers. This interaction is the basis of social life. Interaction refers to an action done in response to another action. Actions performed by a number of individuals are called interaction.

Society is rooted in inter­actions. Interaction is the basic ingredient of social relationships. The various social processes are the forms of interaction. The process of interaction, contact, forming and breaking down of relationships con­tinuously occurs in society. Behavior system grow out of interac­tion. Without interaction there would be no social life.

As members of society people have to act and behave in ac­cordance with some specific manner. They are always engaged in some sort of actions and interactions in the society. When the actions of the individual or individuals are influenced by the actions of other individual or individuals in a society and he in turn is exposed to their action that is called social interaction.

But every action is not social. When people and their attitudes are involved, the actions become social. Social interaction is the foundation of every society. It is the key factor in all social life. The very roots of society are based on social interactions. Both society and culture are the products of social interaction. Hence no society is possible without social interaction.

Social interaction refers to the entire range of social relationships. It is the reciprocal influence mutually exerted by humans through their stimulation and mutual response. Social interaction takes place between (i) Individual and individual (ii) Individual and group (iii) Group and group.

(1) According to Green, “Social interaction is the mutual influ­ences that individuals and groups have on one another in their at­tempts to solve problems and in their striving towards goals.”

(2) According to Eldredge and Merril, “Social interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful con­tact as a result of which their behavior is modified, however slightly.”

(3) According to Dawson and Gettys, “Social interaction is a process whereby men interpenetrate the minds of each other”.

Social interaction has four main aspects such as contact, com­munication, form and structure. Social interaction only takes place within a social structure. Various social processes are the forms of interaction. Social contact and communication are two important pre­requisites of social interaction.

(1) Social Contact:

Ordinarily coming together of two indi­viduals is contact. Kingsley Davis opines the form of contact be­comes social when the concerned people have some meaning in it and feeling of communication. In other words it constitutes human contact and interaction. According to Gillin and Gillin “Social contact is the first phase of interaction”.

Social contacts are always estab­lished through the medium of some sense organs. It is established through the medium of radio, telephone etc. and is strengthened by physical contacts like kissing, shaking of hands etc. Social contact can be positive as well as negative. Positive social contact includes co-operation, accommodation and assimilation while negative social contact includes hatred, jealousy and conflict.

(2) Communication:

Communication is another condition of interaction. Without communication there can be no contact. It is another aspect of contact. In communication an individual assesses the thoughts and feelings of another person and his behavior. The important means of communication are the language, radio, T.V. news­paper, gestures etc. through which social contact is established. The easiest way of communicating thoughts and feeling is through lan­guage. Language communication may be oral or written. But unwrit­ten and unspoken communication is also possible through signs and symbols.

Thus contact and communication are necessary for social in­teraction.

The system of social interaction is called social process. The fundamental ways in which people establish social relationship and interact are called social process. It refers to the repetitive forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life. Social interaction normally occurs in the form of accommodation, assimilation, coop­eration, competition and conflict. These forms of social interaction are also called as social processes.

These are the modes of social interaction. In society individuals continuously come in contact with one another. They cooperate and compete with each other for the realization of their respective aims and struggle for their rights. Hence social processes found continually in society.

There exists a very close relationship between social interac­tion and social process. We can’t understand one without help from the other. When social interaction through repetition leads to a result it is called a social process.

(1) According to Maclver, “Social Process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a group, once bought together, acquire a distinctive character”.

(2) According to Gillin and Gillin, “By social process we mean those ways of interacting which we can observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of relationships of what hap­pens when changes disturb already existing modes of life.”

(3) Horton and Hunt opinion “The term social process refers to the repetitive form of behavior which is commonly found in social life.”

(4) According to Morris Ginsberg, “Social processes are the various modes of social interaction between individuals or groups in­cluding co-operation and conflict, social differentiation and integra­tion, development, arrest and decay.”

Elements of Social Process:

Social Process has the follow­ing essential elements.

(i) Sequence of events

(ii) Repetition of events

(iii) Relationship between events

(iv) Continuity of events

(v) Special Social results

Classification of Social Process or Types:

Sociologists are not unanimous regarding the classification types or forms of social processes. It has been classified differently by different sociologists. Some sociologist classified it into two types such as:

(i) Conjunctive social process

(ii) Disjunctive social process

E.A. Ross had prepared a list of 38 kinds of social process.

Blackinar and Gillin classified social processes into six categories.

Park and Burgess classified it into four fundamental types of interaction such as competition, conflict, accommodation and assimi­lation.

L. Von.Wiese and H. Buker classified social processes into 650 types.

But inspite of all these classifications social processes can broadly be categorized into two types such as associative and disso­ciative process. Famous German Sociologist George Simmel first dis­cussed about these two processes.

However we will discuss major types of social processes under two broad headings. They are:

(a) Associative process

(b) Dissociative process.

Associative processes are also called the integrative or conjunctive social processes which are essential for the integration and progress of the society. The major types of associative processes are the following. Co-operation Accommodation Assimilation Acculturation

Dissociative social processes are also called the disintegrative or disjunctive social processes. Although these processes hinder the growth and development of society, their absence results in stagnation of society. Few important types or dissociative processes are:

Competition

Conflict

Contravention

Differentiation

Co-Operation:

Co-operation is the most fundamental associative social process. The term “Co-operation” has been derived from two Latin words: ‘Co’ means ‘together’ and ‘Operari’ meaning ‘to work’. Hence co­operation means working together or joint activity for the achievement of common goal or goals. So it is a process in which individuals or groups work unitedly for the promotion of common goals or objectives. It is a goal oriented social process. It is very important as the human society and its development have been possible with co-operaticn.

Definitions:

Co-operation is clearly defined by many scholars. Some of the definitions are given below:

(i) A.W. Green:

Co-operation is “the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.”

(ii) Fair Child:

“Co-operation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised way, for the attainment of common objective.

(iii) Merrill and Eldrege:

“Co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end.”

C.H. Cooley has summerised co-operation in the following terms: “Co-operations arises when men see that they have a common interest and have, at the same time, sufficient intelligence and self control to seek this interest through united actions : Prescribed unity of interest and the faculty of organization are the essential facts in intelligent combination.”

It is evident from the above definitions that co-operation is a process of social interaction in which two or more individuals or groups combine their efforts to achieve certain commons ends and objectives.

Ex:

(i) The Indians irrespective of their caste, race, creed, religion etc. differences fought against the British unitedly to achieve independence.

(ii) The Indian agriculture is mainly based on the co-operative spirit of the farmers.

Conditions of Co-Operation:

The process of co-operation involves two important elements. They are:

(a) Common end or purpose.

(b) Organised effort.

The achievement of common end calls for the organised efforts of individuals or groups such efforts should be pre­planned and properly organised. It is not possible for people to promote the process of co-operation without these two essential elements.

Characteristics of Co-Operation:

Followings are some of the important characteristics of co- operation.

(a) Continuous Process:

It is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective efforts in Co-operation.

(b) Personal Process:

This is a process in which the individuals and the groups personally meet and work together for a common objective.

(c) Conscious Process:

In the process of co-operation the organised individuals or the groups work together consciously.

(d) Universal Process:

Co-operation is also a universal social process. Because it is found every where in all periods of time.

(e) Common Ends:

Common end can be better achieved by co-operation which is essential for the welfare of both individual and society.

(f) Organised Efforts:

Co-operation is a process of social interaction which is based on the organized efforts of individuals and groups.

Type of Co- Operation:

Different Sociologists have classified co- Operation in different some of the important types of co- operation are the following.

(a) Direct Co-operation:

In the process of Co-operation when individuals and groups co-operate directly with each other, that is called direct co-operation. There exists direct relationship among individuals and the groups. It permits the people to do like things together because the nature of work itself calls for the participation of men or groups in a together situation. It brings social satisfaction. It makes the difficult tasks easy.

Ex:

Travelling together, playing together, worshipping together are few important examples of direct co-operation.

(b) Indirect Co-operation:

In the process of co-operation when people do things individually and indirectly for the achievement of common goal that is called indirect-co-operation. Here the goal is one or common, but the individuals perform specialized function for its attainment. This co-operation is based on the principles of division of labor and specializations of functions. So in modern society indirect co-operation plays important role as the present technological age requires specialization of skills and functions.

Ex:

In a factory or industry all the workers do separate job to produce common things. In an another example, the construction of a building or house is possible as the carpenters, plumbers and masons are engaged in different activities.

Classification given by A. W. Green are the following.

(a) Primary Co-operation:

In this type of co-operation there is an identity of interests but no self interest among those who co­operate. Every member is conscious of the welfare of all. It owes its origin to personal satisfaction. It is present in primary groups like family, neighbourhood and children’s play group. Here there is an identity or ends of interest and all the members in some way or the other, derive benefit from primary co-operation.

(b) Secondary Co-operation:

This type of Co-operation is found in the secondary groups. In these groups the individuals co­operate with each other for the achievement of some self interest. This is the characteristic feature of modern civilized society which are very much witnessed in political, economic, religious, commercial, educational and other groups. It does not provide equal benefit to all its members.

(c) Tertiary Co-operation:

Primary and secondary co­operation is the characteristic of individual person while tertiary co­operation characterizes the interaction among various social groups, large or small. These groups make certain adjustment voluntarily with each other under certain compelling circumstances. The attitude of groups co-operating with each other are selfish and opportunistic in the extreme. For example, in an election when two political parties co-operate with each other to defeat the rival party, it is called tertiary co-operation.

Role and Importance of Co-operation:

Being a universal and continuous social process, co-operation plays dominant role but it is very much essential for the welfare of the society as well. So the role of co-operation may be discussed from two angles. They are:

(a) From individual point of view.

(b) From the point of view of society.

Role of Co-operation from individual point of view:

(1) Man can fulfill his basic and fundamental needs such as food, clothing and shelter by co-operation. It also fulfils many psychological needs of human beings.

(2) It is not possible for individuals to reach his respective goals without the active co-operation of other members in society.

(3) Co-operation is the foundation on which our social life is built up. The existence of society and the survival of human beings depend upon the co-operative spirit and mutual aid of men and women.

(4) With the solid and active co-operation of his fellow beings, man can lead a happy and comfortable life.

Role of Co-operation from the point of view of Society:

Co-operation is also equally important from the social point of view.

(1) It helps society to progress. Progress can be better achieved through united action. Progress in science, technology, agriculture, industry, transport and communication etc. has been possible with co-operation.

(2) It is the main spring of collective life. It builds society, it conserves society. In a democratic country, co-operation has become a necessary condition of collective life and activities.

(3) It provides solution for many international problems and disputes. Because co-operation as a process of integration has the quality to bring end to different problems through united activities.

(4) Progress is granted permanence only by co-operation. Because conflict inspires the individual to progress, but he does so only if he gets co-operation.

So it may be concluded that co-operation is very indispensable for individual as well as social life.

Competition:

The most important fundamental dissociative social process is competition. It is a form of opposition or social struggle. It is a contest among individuals or groups to acquire something which has limited supply or insufficient in quantity and not easily available. It is characterized by non-co-operation. Here the competitors forces their attention on the goal or the reward they are struggling to achieve but not on themselves. They try to achieve the goal by methods other than force or fraud.

Generally in our society there is competition for getting jobs. The people who are already employed desire for better jobs. There is no competition for sunshine, water, fresh air etc. which are treated as the free gift of nature.

When there is a shift in interest from the objects of competition to the competitors themselves, it is called rivalry or personal competition. But when the individuals or groups compete with each other, not on personal level but as members of group, competition is impersonal.

Definition of Competition:

There are many definitions of competition given by different scholars. Some of the important definitions are given below:

Park and Burgess define Competition as “an interaction without social contact.”

E.S. Bogardus define Competition as “a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand.”

Majumdar says that “Competition is the impersonalized struggle among resembling creatures for goods and services which are scarce or limited in quantity.”

Horton and Hunt opine that, “competition is the struggle for possession of rewards which are limited in supply, goods, status, and power, love anything.”

H.P. Fairchild states that, “Competition is the struggle for the use or possession of limited goods.”

From the above definitions it may be concluded that competition is a process in which individuals or groups try to obtain thing or things which have limited supply and which they cannot achieve or share collectively.”

Features of Competition:

Competition as a disintegrative social process has the following characteristic features:

(1) Universal Process:

It is the most universal social process present in all societies, whether civilized or uncivilized, rural or urban, traditional or modern in all periods of history and among all classes of people like doctors, engineers, workers, students and farmers etc.

(2) Continuous Process:

Competition is a continuous process as it never comes to an end. If one process of competition ends then another process of competition stands there. The desire for status, power and wealth in an ever increasing degree makes competition a continuous process.

(3) Unconscious Process:

The individuals or the groups who are involved in the process of competition do not bother about themselves but they are primarily concerned with the achievement of goal or reward. Hence competition takes place on an unconscious level.

(4) Impersonal Process:

Those who take part in competition do not know one another at all. They do not compete with each other on personal level. They focus their attention on the goal or reward which they are trying to achieve. They do not have any contact whatsoever. According to Ogburn an Nimkoff, “Struggle is personal competition.”

(5) Always governed by norms:

Nowhere competition is unregulated. It is always and everywhere governed by norms. Competitors are expected to use fair means to achieve success.

Forms of Competition:

Competition as a universal social process is found in all fields of social life. In our day to day life we come across many types or forms of competitions. Some of the important competitions are the following.

(i) Political Competition.

(ii) Social Competition.

(iii) Economic Competition.

(iv) Cultural Competition.

(v) Racial Competition.

(i) Political Competition:

This type of competition is found in the political field. For example, during election each and every political party competes for getting majority. This is not only found at national level but at international level. Also there is keen competition between nations who are wedded to different political ideologies.

(ii) Social Competition:

To get high social status usually this social competition is mostly observed in open societies where individual’s talent, capacity, ability as well as merit are given weightage.

(iii) Economic Competition:

In economic field economic competition is fairly observed. It is the most vigorous form of competition. It is reflected in the process of production, distribution and consumption of goods. In the economic field men compete for salaries, jobs and promotions etc. They generally compete for higher standard of living. This economic competition is not only present at individual level but also at group level.

(iv) Cultural Competition:

Cultural competition is present among different cultures. When two or more cultures try to show their superiority over others, this type of competition takes place. Here arises cultural diversities. For example, in the modern society there is cultural competition between the Hindus and the Muslims. In the ancient period, there was a strong competition between the cultures of Aryans and Non-Aryans.

(v) Racial Competition:

Like cultural competition, racial competition is found among the major races of world. When one race tries to establish its supremacy over other races, it gives birth to racial competition. For example the competition between Negroes and the whites is the bright example of racial competition.

Role and Importance of Competition:

Competition plays a significant role not only in the life of persons but also for the groups and societies. Some sociologists say that it is even more basic than the process of co-operation. Hobbes had remarked that the struggle is the basic law of life. Rousseau and Hegel also corroborated their views. Later on, in Darwin’s theory of evolution, the principle of “Survival of the fittest” also stressed the importance of competition in society. The importance of competition may be discussed under two broad headings.

They are:

(a) Positive Role

(b) Negative Role.

(a) Positive Role:

It includes the positive functions of competitions. They are:

(i) The role and status of the individual members in the society is determined by competition. Thus it assigns individuals their places in the social system.

(ii) It protects the individuals from direct conflicts and provides a solution to the problem of limited supply and unlimited demand of goods in a peaceful way.

(iii) It furnishes motivation in the desire to excel or obtain recognition or to win an award.

(iv) Fair competition is conducive to economic as well as social progress and even to general welfare as it spurs individuals and groups or to put in their best efforts.

(v) It provides social mobility to the individual members of the society. It helps them to improve their social status.

(vi) The division of labor and the entire complex economic organization in modern life are the products of competition.

(b) Negative Role:

Apart from the positive functions, competition also performs some negative functions.

(i) Unfair use of competition causes a great deal of wastage in the economic field.

(ii) Sometimes competition leads to exploitation when it is unrestricted.

(iii) Unhealthy competition creates psychological and emotional disturbances which is harmful to the society.

(iv) If competition becomes uncontrolled it takes violent form, i.e. conflict.

So from the above discussion we come to know that healthy and fair competition should be encouraged instead of unfair and unrestricted competition.

Conflict:

Another significant dissociative social process is conflict. It is an ever present process in human society. Whenever a person or persons or groups seek to gain reward not by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them from effective competition, conflict takes place. In other words, it is a competition in its more hostile and personal forms. It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is seen that conflict makes an individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or group who are seeking the same object. It implies a struggle or fight among individuals or groups for a particular purpose or a number of purposes.

For example, the movements like Civil Disobedience, Non- Co-operation and Satyagraha launched by Mahatma Gandhi against the Britishers in India before Independence are conflict. Even in today’s society conflict is found in every sphere like caste, religion, language, culture and so on. Thus it is considered as a universal social process.

Definitions:

Some of the important definitions given by the sociologists are stated below:

Kingsley Davis defines Conflict, “as a modified form of struggle.”

Maclver and Page state that, “Social conflict included all activity in which men contend against one another for any objective.”

A.W. Green says, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others.”

Majumdar defines that, “Conflict is an opposition or struggle involving an emotional attitude of hostility as well as violent interference with autonomous choice.”

Gillin and Gillin state that, “Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.”

From the above definitions, it is clear that individuals or groups involved in conflict try to oppose, resist or coerce each other deliberately. It is the opposite of co-operation. It is a process which leads two or more persons or groups to try to frustrate the attempts of their opponents to attain certain objectives. Examples:

(i) The conflict between nations leads to national conflict.

(ii) The conflict between different political parties leads to political conflict.

(iii) Caste conflict, class conflict and racial conflict etc.

Features of Conflict:

From the above definitions the following characteristics may be noted.

(i) Universal Process:

Conflict is found in all societies in all periods of time. The degree and the form of conflict may vary from society to society and from time to time but it is present in all types of societies.

(ii) Conscious Process:

This is a process in which the conflicting parties are very much conscious in causing loss or injury to persons or groups. They attempt to fight or oppose and defeat each other consciously.

(iii) Personal Process:

The chief aim of conflict is to cause harm or to bring loss to the opponents. The conflicting parties personally know each other. So in this form of struggle to overcome the opponents, the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary importance.

(iv) Intermittent Process:

Conflict is not as continuous as competition. It is an intermittent process. It takes place suddenly and comes to an end quickly. It never continues for ever due to the occasional occurrence of conflict.

(v) Conflict is based on violence:

Sometimes conflict takes the form of violence. Violence is harmful to the growth of the society and retards the progress as it creates a number of problems.

If conflict occurs non-violently, it maintains peace in the society which is helpful for its development.

Causes of Conflict (Why does conflict take Place?)

Conflict is a deliberate process. It does not occur spontaneously. Although it is a universal social process, its causes vary from individual to individual, group to group and from time to time. It is caused not by single factor but by multiple factors.

The famous population list Malthus says that it is caused by the means of subsistence increase in arithmetical progression and increase of population in geometrical progression. It implies that conflict arises only when the population of a country increases and the means of livelihood decreases. It results in the scarcity of the means of subsistence which leads to conflict.

Types of Conflict:

Conflict is found in many forms in all the societies. Some of the important classification of conflict given by different scholars are the following.

(i) Classification of Maclver and Page:

According to Maclver and Page there are mainly two types of conflict.

(a) Direct Conflict.

(b) Indirect Conflict.

(a) Direct Conflict:

In this type of conflict the conflicting individuals or groups try to harm each other directly to attain the goal or reward at the expense of their opponents even by going to the extent of injuring or destroying their rivals. Direct conflict may be of two types.

(i) Less Violent.

(ii) More Violent.

Sometimes direct conflict takes less violent form. So it is less harmful. For example litigation, propagandistic activities etc.

More violent form of direct conflict is more harmful, for example war, riots, revolutions etc.

(b) Indirect Conflict:

When the conflicting parties try to frustrate the efforts of their opponents indirectly it is called indirect conflict. The keen competition among the parties automatically takes the form of indirect conflict. For example, when two manufacturers go on lowering the prices of their commodities till both of them are declared insolvent is indirect conflict.

(ii) Classification of Gillin and Gillin:

Gillin and Gillin have given five types of conflict. They are:

(a) Personal.

(b) Racial

(c) Political

(d) Class

(e) International.

(a) Personal conflict takes place on personal level due to selfish nature of man. It takes place among the members of the same group when there is clash in their aims and ideas. For example, the conflict between two qualified persons for a common post.

(b) Racial conflict takes place among different races of the World. Some of the races feel superior to other races and some others feel inferior. So the feelings of superiority and inferiority causes racial conflict. For example, the conflict between Whites and Negroes.

(c) Political conflict is found in the political field. When the different political leaders or the political parties try to gain power in democratic countries it is called political conflict.

(d) Class conflict is present among the different classes of the society. Our modern society has been characterized by classes which are based on power, income, education etc. Although class is an open system conflict takes place among different classes due to the difference in power, income, prestige etc. For example, the conflict between the proletariat and bourgeoisie according to Karl Marx led to class struggle.

(e) International conflict takes place between different nations. When the nations try to achieve common objective by suppressing each other international conflict takes place. For example, the conflict between India and Pakistan regarding Kashmir Issue.

(iii) Classification of George Simmel:

According to George Simmel there are four major forms of conflict. They are:

(a) War

(b) Feud

(c) Litigation

(d) Conflict of Impersonal Ideals.

(a) War is a type of direct conflict. When all the efforts of the different nations fail to resolve the conflict, war takes place. This is the only solution to bring peace.

(b) Feud is another type of conflict which takes place among the members of the society. So it is also called intra-group conflict. It differs from society to society in degrees. It is also sometimes referred as factional strife.

(c) Litigation is judicial by nature. In order to redress the grievances and to get justice people take the help of judiciary which is called litigation. For example, for a piece of land when two farmers take the help of judiciary. Litigation takes place.

(d) Conflict of Impersonal Ideals-when the individuals do not aim at achieving personal gain but for some ideals it is called the conflict of impersonal ideals. Here every party tries to justify the truthfulness of its own ideals. For example, when a political party tries to show that its ideals are better than that of other political parties. This conflict takes place.

Importance of Conflict:

Although conflict is a form of struggle or fight, it is essential both for the individuals and society. It performs both constructive as well as destructive functions. Conflict is constructive in the sense when it is helpful in the smooth running of the society. It is destructive when it hinders the peaceful atmosphere and retards the progress of the society.

The chief functions of conflict may be discussed under two broad headings. They are:

(i) Positive functions

(ii) Negative functions.

Positive Function:

The positive functions are purely constructive in nature.

(a) Conflict increases fellow feeling, brotherhood and social solidarity within groups and societies. For example, inter-group conflict promotes intra-group co-operation.

(b) Conflict helps in the exchange of cultural elements when comes to an end.

(c) It changes the status of the group or society which comes to be regarded as super power.

(d) When conflict is over, the parties give up old values and accept new ones. It brings changes in old customs, traditions, folkways and mores.

(e) Sometimes conflict helps in increasing the production which adds to the national income.

Negative Function:

The negative functions are called the destructive functions. Some of the negative functions of conflict are given below.

1. In the process of conflict, the defeated party becomes psychologically and normally down.

2. Time, money and energy of the conflicting parties get exhausted.

3. Uncontrolled conflict brings violence which leads to destruction of lives and properties of the countless individuals.

4. Social solidarity is adversely affected by conflict. It hinders national integration.

5. Sometimes conflict leads to inter-group tension and disrupts group unity.

6. Conflict diverts members’ attention from group objectives.

From the above discussion we come to know that conflict has both positive and negative importance. Its positive functions are more important than the negative ones. Moreover, conflict plays a very important role in consolidating a group internally.