Basic Institutions of Indian Society: Religion

Religion

The variety of religious beliefs and organizations is so immense that scholars have found great difficulty in reaching a generally accepted definition of religion. In the West, most people identify religion with Christianity – a belief in a supreme begin, who commends us to behave in a moral fashion on this earth and promise an afterlife to in general terms. First, religion should not be identified with monotheism (belief in one God). Most religions involve many deities. Even in some versions of Christianity there are several figures with sacred qualities: God, Jesus, Mary, the Holy Ghost, angles and saints. In certain religions that are no gods at all. 

Second, religion should not be identified with moral prescriptions controlling the behavior of believers-like the commandments that Moses was said to have received from. The idea that the gods are interested in how behave on this earth is alien to many religions. To the ancient Greeks, for example, the gods were largely indifferent to the activities of Humanity, 

Third, religion is not necessarily concerned with explaining how the world come to be as it is. In Christianity, the myth of Adam and Eve purports to explain the origin of human existence. And many religions have myths of origin of this sort; but equally, many do not. 

Fourth, religion cannot be identified with the supernatural, as intrinsically involving belief in a universe ‘beyond the realm of the sense’. Confucianism, for example, is considered with accepting the natural harmony of ht e world, not with finding truths that ‘lie behind’ it. 

What is religion? 

Characteristics that all religions do seem to share are as follows. Religion involves a set of symbols, involving feelings of reverence or awe, and arte linked to rituals or ceremonials (such as church services) engaged in by a community of believers. Each of these elements needs some elaboration. Whether singing, eating certain kinds of food - or refraining from doing so - fasting on certain days and so on. Since ritual acts are oriented towards religious symbols, they are usually seen as quite distinct from the habits and procedures of ordinary life. Lighting a candle to honour or placate a god differs completely in its significance from doing so to light a room. Religions rituals are often carried on by involve ceremonials practiced collectively by believers. Regular ceremonials normally occur in special places- churches, temples or the shrines where the ‘miracle’ of the gods drinking milk happened in India. The existence of collective ceremonial is usually regarded by sociologists as one of the main factors distinguishing religion from magic, although the borderlines are by no means clear- cut. Magic is the influencing of events by the use of potions, chanting or rituals practices. It is generally practice by individuals, not by a community of believers. People often choose to resort to magic in situation of misfortune or danger. Thus Brownislaw Malinowski’s classic study of the Trobraind islanders of the Pacific describes a variety if magical rites performed before any hazardous voyage by canoe (1982). The islanders omit such rites when they are simply going fishing in the safe placid waters of a local lagoon.

Although magical practices have mostly disappeared from modern societies, in situations of danger magic- like superstitions are still common. Many who work in occupation that are dangerous or where chance factors can drastically affect performances- such as miners, deep- sea fishermen or sports players- indulge in small superstitious rituals or carry particular items in times of stress. An example might be a tennis player who insists on wearing a particular ring during big matches. Fortune telling by star signs, based on astrological beliefs which have been inherited from magical ideas in pre modern sciences, still commands a following, although most people do not take it too seriously. 

Varieties of Religions

In traditional societies, religion usually plays a central part in social life. Religious symbols and ritual are often integrated with material and artistic culture of the society- music, painting or carving, dance, story-telling and literature. In small cultures, there is no professional priesthood, but there are always certain individuals who specialize in knowledge of religious (and often magical) practices. Although, there are various sorts of such specialists, one common type is the shaman (a word originating among North American Indian). A shaman is an individual believed to be able to direct sprites or non- natural forces though ritual means. Shamans are sometimes essentially magicians rather than religious leaders, however, and are often consulted by individuals dissatisfied with what is offered in the religious rituals of the community.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam 

The three most influential monotheistic religions in world history are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. All originated in the Middle East and each has influenced the others. Judaism Judaism is the oldest of the three religions, dating from 1,000 BCE. The early Hebrews were nomads, living in and around ancient Egypt. Their, prophets, or religious leaders, partly drew their ideas from existing religious beliefs in the single, but differed in their commitment to a single, almighty God. Most of their neighbors were polytheistic. The Hebrews believed that God demands obedience to strict moral codes, and insisted in their claim to a monopoly of truth, seeing their beliefs as the only true religion ( Zeitlin 1984, 1988). Until the creation of Israel, not long after the end of World War Two, there was no state og which Judaism was the official religion. Jewish communities survived in Europe, North Africa and Asia, although they were frequently persecuted- culminating in the murder of millions of Jews by the Nazis in concentration camps during the war. Christianity Many Judaic views were taken over and incorporated as part of the Christianity. Jesus was an orthodox Jew, and Christianity began as a sect of Judaism; it is not clear that Jesus wished to found a distinctive religion. His disciples came to think of him as the Messiah- a Hebrew word meaning ‘the anoinred’, the Greek term for which was ‘Christ’- awaited by the Jews. Paul, a Greek speaking Roman citizen, was a major initiator of the spread if Christianity, preaching extensively in Asia Minor and Greece. Although the Christians were at first savagely persecuted, the Emperor Constantine eventually adopted Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity spread to become a dominant force in Western culture for the next thousands years. Christianity today commands a greater number of adherents, and is more generally spread across the world, than any other religion. Over a thousand million individuals regards themselves as of theology and church organization, the main branches being Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Eastern Orthodox. Islam The origins of Islam, today the second largest religion in the world, overlap with those of Christianity. Islam derives from the teachings of the prophet Muhammad in the seventh century CE. The single God of Islam, Allah, is believed to hold sway over all human and natural life. The Pillars of Islam are the five essential religious duties of Muslims (as believers in Islam are called). The first is the recitation of the Islamic creed, ‘There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the apostle of Allah. The second is the saying of formal prayers five times each day, preceded by ceremonial washing. The worshiper at these prayers must always face towards the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, no matter how far away that is.

The third pillar is the observance of Ramadan, a month of fasting during which no food or drink may be taken during daylight. The fourth is the giving of alms (money to the poor). Set out in Islamic law, which has often been used as a source of taxation by the state. Finally, there is the expectation that every believer will attempt, at least once, to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims believe that Allah spoke through earlier – before Muhammad, whose teachings most directly express his will. Islam has come to be very widespread, havinf some 1,000 million adherents throughout the world. The majority are concentrated in North and East Africa, the Middle East and Pakistan. 

The Religions of the Far East

Hinduism 

There are major contrasts between Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and the religions of the Far East. The oldest of all the great religions still prominent in the world today is Hinduism, the core beliefs of which date back some six thousand years. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. It is so internally diverse that some scholars have suggested that it should be regarded as a cluster of related religions rather than a single religious orientation; many local cults and religious practices are linked by a few generally held beliefs. Most Hindus accept the doctrine cycle of reincarnation – the belief that all living beings are part of an eternal process of birth, death and rebirth. 

A second key feature is the caste system, based on the beliefs that individuals are borne into a particular position in a social ritual hierarchy, according to the nature of their activities in previous incarnations. A different set of duties and rituals exists for each caste, and one’s fate in the next life is governed mainly by how well these duties are performed in this one. Hinduism accepts the possibility of numerous different religious standpoints, not drawing a clear line between believers and non-believers. There are over 750 million Hindus, virtually all living on the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism does not seek to convert others into ‘true believers’, unlike Christianity and Islam. Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism 

The ethical religions of the East encompass Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. These religions have no gods. Rather, they emphasize ethical ideals that relate the believer to the natural cohesion and unity of the universe.

Buddhism derives from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (enlightened one), who was a Hindu prince in a small kingdom in south Nepal in the sixth century BCE. According to the Buddha, human beings can escape the reincarnation cycle by the renunciation of desire. The path of salvation lies in a life of self-discipline and meditation, separated from the tasks of mundane world. The overall objective of Buddhism is the attainment of Nirvana, complete spiritual fulfillment. The Buddha rejected Hindu ritual and the authority of the castes. Like Hinduism, Buddhism tolerates many local variations, including belief in local deities, not insisting on a single view. Buddhism today is a major influence in several states in the Far East, including Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Korea. 

Confucianism was the basis of the culture of the ruling groups in traditional China. ‘Confucius’ (the Latinized form of the name K’ung Fu-tzu), lived in the sixth century BCE, the same period as Buddha. Like Lao-tzu, the founder of Taoism, Confucius was a teacher, not a religious prophet in the manner of the Middle Eastern religious leaders. Confucius is not seen by his followers as a god, but as ‘the wisest of wise men’. Confucianism seeks to adjust human life to the inner harmony of nature, emphasizing the veneration of ancestors. Taoism shares similar principles, stressing meditation non-violence as means to the higher life. Although some elements survive in the beliefs and practices of many Chinese, Confucianism and Taoism have lost much of their influence in China as a result of determined opposition from the government.

RELIGIOUS PLURALISM IN INDIA

Indian society is composed of diverse cultures, and peoples, languages and religions. To examine the nature of diversity of the religious faiths in our country we must look at the historical antecedents of various religious groups found in our society. Diversity of religious faiths has existed over a very long period of time as India has been a country of not only very ancient history but also a place where communities from outside continually kept on coming and settling down. Together with diverse cultural groups in various religions in India pursuing their faiths, these immigrant communities also brought their own religious faiths, customs and cultures. This resulted in bringing together people following different religions and gradually laid the basis of religious pluralism in India. Religions pluralism means diversity among people based on their varied kinds of religious beliefs. Pluralism of religion has thus two connotations:

i) it refers to the fact that India has been a land of not one but many religions since ancient times; and

ii) that each religion contains, besides its primary features which define its essence

many cultural, social and ritualistic elements which cut across boundaries of different religions faiths. These cultural and social similarities are a product of interaction and accommodation established over a long period of time by regional, linguistic, ritual and social proximity of various religious groups. Religious pluralism in India is, thus not only a fact but it also permeates through beliefs, values and social character of individual religions in India.

Geographical Spread

Yet another important feature of religious pluralism can be seen in the geographical

spread of religions in India. The Hindus, who constitute the majority religion, are i spread all over, but have large concentration in the central and southern states of India with high , density pocket in a few northern states and far eastern Assam,

The Muslims, the second largest religious group have relatively greater concentration

in South-western states such as Kerala, Karnataka, the northern and eastern states in U.P., Bihar, Assam and pockets of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, They are also spread throughout the country like the Hindus.

The Christians have density concentration in the southern states of Kerala, parts of

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and the north-eastern states of Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya. They are also spread across Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and some parts of other northern states in small pockets. One important feature of geographical settlement of Christians is that they may be found in larger numbers in states with higher tribal population due to the impact of conversion.

Religion and Sect

An important element of pluralism among religions in India is their sub-division into sects. Max Weber has given a technical measuring to a sect and distinguishes it from church, especially in the context of Christianity. He says that membership of Church (the main religion) is compulsory. It is governed by collective norms or rules and is run by religious functionaries. But the membership to a sect is voluntary. It is individualistic and lends freedom to the followers of the sects from the compulsory obedience to the functionaries of the Church.

Weber has used the term sect in a relatively definitive sense which may not apply to all religions. Sects are however, common to all religions, such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Sub-divisions and Sects in a more general sense refer to internal diversities of interpretation of sacred principles, ritual practices and religious practices in a religion. Sects may also evoke historical cleavages within a religion either due to new interpretation of the religious canons or due to fictionalisation of the religious leadership. Sects, however, operate within the boundary of the specific religion to which they belong. Yet, the process of differentiation makes it possible that inter-religious proximities of customs, rituals and practices of religion and proximity or religious beliefs across religions is made possible due to this process.

Religion and Caste

You cannot fully understand the nature of religion in India without analysing the pervasive role of the caste institution among various religious groups. Caste is based on the Hindu religious view of birth-rebirth and Karma. In Hinduism caste groups ‘are placed into a hierarchical order of pure and impure ritual status within the four Varna wherein the Brahman are at the top, followed by the Kshatriya, the Vaisya and the Sudra and the out-caste. In actual life, caste exists in society as Jatis. There are thousands of Jatis among the Hindus each contributing to vertical differentiation and horizontal solidarity among the castes.

Therefore, Hindu religion does not constitute a community in a solidary sense. It remained a tolerant adaptive and liberal religion in India. It recognises and is tolerant of differences essentially on communication principle, at least in ideal terms. By communitarian we mean that these religions give importance to the community of its followers. None of these religions recognise inequalities or hierarchy based on caste discrimination. However, in real life none of these religions are free from the existence of caste or caste-like groups which are hierarchically arranged in terms of social status and prestige. These groups are also endogamous and observe social restrictions in marital and social relationships outside their caste-group. The Muslims have caste like divisions in India in all parts of the country. The main castes among them as listed in the census of 1931 for the northern state of United Provinces are: Shaikh, Pathan, Saiyid, Rajpur (Muslim) and Mughal among the upper category, and Julaha, Manihar, Dhunia, Teli, Faquir, Nai (Hajjam), Darzi, Dhobi, Qassab among the lower caste hierarchy. The upper Muslim castes belonged to ruling or landlord families or they were in the profession of learning. The lower castes had occupations families or they were in the profession of learning. The lower castes had occupations carrying lesser social prestige in the society. Each of these castes was endogamous and also observed social and cultural distance from each other based on hierarchy. Contemporary studies have re-confirmed these observations. There has been some social mobility among the Muslim castes based on changes in occupation, but the caste-like social inequality even today continues to exist. 

Christianity in India has not been able to get itself free from the caste system. Even after conversion most caste disabilities of the former (pre-conversion) time continue to persist. Depending upon the caste from which members converted they continue to have the social status in the Christian community commensurate with their earlier caste status. Similar caste recognitions exist for Muslim converts also. As Christianity has expanded through conversion in India it has incorporated more and more castelike groups obeying the rules of hierarchy and endogamy within each caste. The exception in this regard are possibly the tribal communities from the north-east which never had the caste institution in their social organisation. Caste prejudices are reported to be all pervasive among most Indian Christian communities. Similar caste distinctions can be found among the Sikhs also. The conversion to Buddhism, a religion which rejects caste system and social discrimination as its basis, has not been able to eradicate the existence of caste disabilities of the members. As in Islam and Christianity, in Sikhism too, the caste system prevails.

 In terms of inter-religious contacts or commonalities of values and beliefs caste differentiation in each religions in India demonstrates pluralism and has in large measure also contributed to tolerance and brotherliness across the religious divide.

Language and Religious Pluralism

India is a land of diverse cultural patterns which have existed within the framework of religious, linguistic, geographical and local traditions.  Language gives people new identities. There are several

hundred languages and thousands of dialects belonging to various linguistic families. India thus presents a formidable mosaic of linguistic distribution each with individual cultural overtones. Religious differentiation exists within the setting of this linguistic divisions. As a result of this most major religions in India; Hinduism, Islam and Christianity have their members coming from different linguistic communities. Just as caste divides and also unites in some respects, the members coming from different religions belonging to the linguistic communities in India perform the same As Fact and Value function. This is because people for a linguistic community share many common values, cultural style and way of life. Language not only gives identity to people but also serves as the potent vehicle of cultural expression. Linguistic variations within the followers of the same religions made it possible for most people in India to take a broader and more liberal view of the relationship between religion and social and cultural life. There was continual sharing of folkways, styles of life, dietary preferences etc. across religions. This reinforced religious tolerance leading to peaceful co-existence.